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1. Introduction
In the
White Paper on Sport (2007), the European Commission recognised that the time
spent in physical education and extra-curricular sport activities are vital to children’s
education and health. Both are crucial instruments to promote their physical,
cognitive, social and cultural development.
The European Union (EU) Guidelines on Physical
Activity (2008) highlight that the decline in physical activity and the concomitant
increase of the time spent in sedentary behaviours observed among children in
Europe represent an enormous threat, which is responsible for several physical,
metabolic and mental comorbidities, during youth and later life[1],,[2][3].
The low levels of physical activity among children
and adolescents in the EU are alarming and have become a matter of great
concern for policy makers. The educational environment plays a particularly
important role in this context. It has been estimated that about 80% of school-age
children only practice physical activity and sport in school[4].
The school must, therefore, be considered unique, since it is the only
institution that can help all children to achieve, whether through formal
curriculum (physical education classes) or through extra-curricular sport and
physical activities, the World Health Organization's recommendations on
physical activity for young people. It has been recognised that special
attention should be given to the education sector and its relevant role in
health-enhancing physical activity (HEPA) promotion during childhood and
adolescence. Schools, and physical education in particular, play a key role in
ensuring that every child has an opportunity to develop fully his/her
cognitive, social and physical potential.
At the EU level, the first EU Work Plan for Sport
(2011-2014)[5]
highlighted the need for further action to promote HEPA. The Council
Recommendation of November 2013 on promoting health-enhancing physical activity
across sectors[6]
invited Member States (MS) to develop cross-sectoral policies and integrated
strategies involving sport, education, health, transport, environment, urban
planning and other relevant society sectors.
Likewise, the second EU Work Plan for Sport
(2014-2017)[7]
gave priority to HEPA promotion and identified additional actions for the
Member States (MS) and the Commission to promote HEPA. It mandated the Expert
Group on Health-enhancing physical activity (XG HEPA) to produce
recommendations to encourage physical education in schools, including motor
skills in early childhood, and to create valuable interactions with the sport
sector, local authorities and the private sector.
From a legal perspective, article 165 of the Lisbon
Treaty provided the basis to support and frame action in the field of sport,
recognising the educational and social relevance of sport in European
societies. When promoting EU sporting issues and considering the mandate of the
XG HEPA, relevant aspects should be taken into account, such as the quality of
the physical education programmes in all MS, the taught time allocated to
physical education and to other extra-curricular activities, the physical
education teachers’ qualifications, and the national strategies adopted in this
context. The Eurydice Report – Physical Education and Sport at School in Europe[8]
looked carefully into some of those aspects. Along with its conclusions,
scientific evidence and the recently published UNESCO report “Quality physical
education guidelines for policy makers”[9] were
used by the XG HEPA to support the development of the present recommendations.
MS are encouraged to take these recommendations into
consideration when defining new national strategies and curricular reforms to
promote quality physical education, physical activity and sport participation
among young people.
The early life period, from birth, assumes a
fundamental role to acquire and improve motor skills[10],[11],
neuromotor capacities and healthy behaviours[12].
During this period, the lack of appropriate physical and cognitive stimulation
may lead to irrecoverable deficiencies or delays that will affect personal
development and achievements throughout life. Participation in physical
activity should, therefore, be promoted as from very early childhood with the
aim of developing neuromotor skills, physical, psychological and social skills.
The academic and social relevance of physical
education is acknowledged in Europe, being included in the formal curriculum in
both primary and secondary education. This fact demonstrates the political
commitment to physical education and sport across MS. According to the Eurydice
report[13],
despite the fact that only half of the MS established national strategies to
develop physical education, about two-thirds refer to the existence of
large-scale national initiatives involving this sector.
Physical education and extra-curricular activities
provide special environments to develop physical, technical and tactical
skills, to ensure the enjoyment of playing different activities, games and
sports, and to promote lifelong fitness and good health through the recognition
of the numerous values associated with the activities performed.
After graduating from secondary level schools, young
people should still be targeted and helped to maintain their healthy lifestyles
through participation in regular exercise programmes or sport at the tertiary
level (international standard classification of education levels 5 to 8).
Universities, in particular, are considered important contexts for the
promotion of HEPA.
2.1 Physical literacy and fundamental motor skills to be promoted before any school setting
From birth, motor skills are
potentially part of each child. They must be stimulated to blossom out through
situations, contexts and opportunities where children can explore their body
and their environment, try out and consolidate their own motor potential.
Regarding the importance of building up healthy attitudes and habits from the
beginning, it is necessary not to miss opportunities to encourage motor
stimulation and promotion in earliest childhood. Fundamental motor skills and
physical literacy should be encouraged by all persons and institutions dealing
with very young children before compulsory school.
The first very important persons to
create such opportunities and to let very young children discover their own
world are parents and grandparents. Advice and help, including local community
based programmes should be offered to parents to ensure that they can create
favourable home environments. They should be aware of the importance of this
topic and encourage children’s motor development.
In our society, young children, even
before attending preschool settings, spend a lot of time in day-care
institutions. These organisations can offer precious opportunities to give
children more time to move and play, both in natural active play and organized
activities. Physical activity and motor promotion must also be part of the
responsibilities of these day-care institutions. If those are under public
control or co-funded by public budgets, physical activity programmes should be
mandatory. For private day-care institutions physical activity programmes
should be highly recommended. An EU label could help to raise awareness for the
topic of physical activity and motor skill promotion.
Preschool settings, parallel or
following on from day-care institutions, despite not always having a formal
physical activity or motor skill curriculum, should offer daily physical
activity and moving opportunities. Physical activity and motor promotion must
be a mandatory part of preschool institutions on a daily basis. Again, an EU
label could help to raise awareness for the topic of physical activity and
motor skill promotion.
To encourage and facilitate the
development of motor skills in early childhood physical activity friendly
environments, age adapted programmes and activities, teachers and educators in
preschool and day-care institutions with training in physical activity
organization and teaching are necessary to fulfil motor promotion in these
settings.
2.2 Physical education curricular content
In early childhood education, physical activity
should include daily natural active play, enjoyable games, participation in
physical activity and sports which could be supported by music or storytelling.
Along with the learning dimension, fun should be also prioritised in both
physical activity and physical education context. Being physically active
should be enjoyable and a natural part of any child's day. Willingness and
desire to learn and participate will always increase if the activity is
enjoyable to children.
During primary and secondary education, physical
education should include a broad variety of different games, physical
activities, and sports to maximise children's experiences and opportunities to
develop personal motor skills, abilities or individual’s interests.
While some MS present mandatory activities that are
addressed by physical education, in several others, schools have the autonomy
to choose major physical education curriculum activities. Very few MS present a
mixed model where mandatory activities coexist with school autonomy, although
it may better adjust national goals to local community realities.
Children and young people are able to develop their physical abilities such as speed, endurance, balance, strength, suppleness, coordination and agility through different types of activities adapted to their capacities. The different gender-typical maturation status, especially until middle adolescence ages, implies that several mandatory physical activities should be precisely introduced according to the age in order to develop each of the neuromotor abilities and skills when they can be best developed[14].
It has been recognised that school physical education
and physical activity can play an important roles in the prevention of several
epidemic comorbidities such as overweight and obesity, diabetes mellitus, and
cardiovascular diseases[15],[16],[17]. More
recently, research suggests that low levels of sport and outdoor activity
increase the odds of becoming myopic, a phenomenon reaching epidemic
proportions among youth in several world regions[18]. It
is estimated that children need to spend around three hours per day under
natural light to be protected against myopia. Physical education classes can
contribute to this need to spend sufficient time outside. Moreover the objective of
physical education for children and young people should also be to instil
lasting habits of moving regularly in outdoor settings, such as natural parks.
Physical education transcends physiological, recreational and competitive dimensions, being also responsible for the transmission of several important ethical principles and concepts such as fair play, perseverance, cooperation, equity, social cohesion, peace, respect of other's capabilities, and both body and social awareness. These values are important pillars to guide the interpersonal interaction and teamwork and, contribute to enhancing personal development and social skills. Extra-curricular physical activities can also play a role in developing these skills and promoting the values transmitted by physical education. By doing so, extra-curricular physical activities can help to prepare future societies that are based on the values of peace, human rights, inclusion, co-operation, solidarity and justice.
During childhood and adolescence, school and family
are the cornerstones of the teaching-learning process, supporting
multi-dimensional personal and social developments. Physical education guidance
documents should emphasize the promotion of children’s physical, social and
personal development, and their awareness for healthy lifestyles.
In some MS health education is a mandatory
stand-alone school subject included in the compulsory curriculum. In almost all
MS, health education concepts such as personal and social well-being, health
and illness prevention, hygiene, food and nutrition have been developed in the
context of other subjects like biology and social sciences. In certain MS, some
of these topics are also included within the physical education curriculum.
The physical education curriculum should cover the
topic of healthy lifestyle from a broad perspective, beyond the practice of
physical activities, in close cooperation with other school disciplinary
groups. Physical education classes should usefully instil and promote healthy
habits and behaviours, like using stairs instead of elevators, walking and
cycling, as well as discouraging excessive television and computer gaming and,
instead, promoting "active" games for times when children
2.3 Inclusive approach
Physical activity is important for all children
regardless of age, gender, ethnicity or social background. Everyone should be
able to participate in the activities proposed, including less active and less
skilled children, in order to prevent negative experiences resulting from
inadequate practice environments and approaches.
In addition, children with disabilities or special
educational needs should not be set aside. Physical education teachers should
adjust the activities, following the advice
from professionals with experience in physical activity and disability.
2.4 Injury prevention
Physical activities and sport are essential parts of
a healthy lifestyle. But, of course, participation in some of these activities
also holds a risk. Although the relative health gains resulting from regular
physical activity exceed the risk of injury, the burden of injuries related to
sport and physical activities is substantial. About one in five injuries
treated at emergency departments in hospitals is related to sport activities[19].
Fortunately, there are many possibilities to prevent
these injuries, for instance by making sport infrastructures and equipment
safer, prescribing the use of protective equipment, adapting rules of the game,
programming systematically warm-up sessions and by making injury prevention a
core component in physical education, and educating physical education teachers
and coaches accordingly. Safety promotion objectives should, therefore, be
integral part of physical education.
2.5 Physical education taught time
More recently, scientific literature has also shown
that physical activity and sport participation is closely associated with
school results, evidencing a positive impact in cognitive development[20],
behaviour, and psychosocial outcomes[21].
In fact, several studies have demonstrated that higher levels of
cardiorespiratory fitness and motor skills development are associated with
better academic performance, cognitive functioning and memory20-[22].
Another important review[23]
has also identified that achieving an adequate
quantity and quality of physical activity is necessary to maintain aerobic
fitness during childhood and should be defined as a critical guideline to
ensure physiological and psychological health.
In this context, the Physical Activity Guidelines
published by the World Health Organization[24]
clearly stress that every child and young person (5-17 years) should engage in
at least one hour of moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity every day
to ensure physiological and psychological health
benefits. This activity should be mostly aerobic, and include muscle and
bone strengthening activities, at least, 3 times per week.
Schools have a vital role to play in providing the
opportunities to be active and to achieve the recommended guidelines. However,
the Eurydice report has identified huge differences between MS regarding the
minimum taught time in physical education. During compulsory education, the
taught time seems to be low and present little variations, corresponding to 50-80
hours a year (i.e., ~ 1.5-2.5 hours per week).
The physical education taught time in primary and
secondary education has been stable during the last 5 years, representing a
very small percentage (about 10%) of the total taught time and about 50% of the
time devoted to mathematics. In order to overcome this lack of physical
education taught time, some MS (e.g. Hungary) have recently adopted new
strategies to implement at all education levels a compulsory physical education
taught time of about 5 lessons per week (i.e. close to the time allocated to
mathematics or native language), thereby reinforcing the opportunities to be
active and closing the gap to the levels recommended by the WHO. Denmark
adapted a similar solution of 5 lessons per week of 45 minutes each, including
physical education taught time and physical activity developed in other school
disciplines.
All MS should be encouraged to follow these examples
and increase physical education taught time to at least 5 lessons per week
during compulsory education period. An increase in minimum physical education
taught time may require adjustments in the curriculum structure and goals and
would aim at realistic activities allowing teachers to address student needs at
an appropriate pace.
2.6 Exemptions from physical education
Exemptions from physical education present another
important issue that concerns all of those involved in the school community.
The reasons to justify temporary or permanent exemption from the proposed
activities are usually health-related. MS differ regarding exemption
procedures; while some MS require a medical certificate attesting the inability
to participate, other MS accept written requests from parents or other
teachers. Whatever model is adopted, schools and physical education teachers
should analyse the exemption requests, in order to understand the underlying
reasons, and involve parents as appropriate. Creative ways of accommodating the
concerns should be explored so as to create the conditions to increase children
participation in the activities.
2.7 Assessment in physical education
Personal progress, results and achievements are
assessed in physical education classes in most of MS, both through summative
and formative assessment methods. During primary education, this assessment
mostly relies on qualitative approaches. However, summative methods are
commonly used, similarly to other compulsory school disciplines.
There is a need to make students aware of
expectations regarding learning and learning outcomes. The latter should be
tangible and adjusted for each developmental stage. Students should be able to
understand how particular skills acquired in physical education classes enhance
their capacities to learn and are applicable in their lives outside sport and
recreation.
Effective and regular feedback is considered a very
powerful tool to help improve student outcomes[25].
Tracking learning during the teaching process should be among the daily
responsibilities of physical education teachers.
Several MS have tried new successful approaches by
using progress and achievements scales rather than quantitative physical
results, which should be
considered by MS authorities.
considered by MS authorities.
2.8 Physical education teachers
Physical education teachers are key agents for
putting physical and sport policies into practice. In the European Union, both
generalist and specialist (with a Bachelors or Masters Degrees) teachers are
giving physical education classes. In pre-school and primary education level,
schools usually pursue a single-teacher model, where non-specialist teachers
are allowed to teach physical education. In such cases, it is considered
beneficial, as a minimum that qualified physical education teachers’ mentor and
support general teachers. In secondary education, a Masters degree is usually
required from specialist physical education teachers. Physical education
teachers should be role models and should be physically active as well.
Continuous professional development is normally
available to physical education teachers, thereby facilitating interaction with
other disciplines. High quality training opportunities should always be ensured
to allow physical education teachers to expand their knowledge in relevant
themes, such as new motor skills and sports, and health-enhancing physical
activity, in order to improve the quality of their provision. Initial physical
education teacher education should be constantly adapted to include such
relevant topics, and also results from recent research and new learning
approaches.
2.9 Monitoring of physical education
Monitoring the assessment or evaluation of physical
education is legally required in most MS. However, it may be carried out
irregularly or infrequently and there may be either no administrative system in
place or there is a shortage of appropriately qualified/experienced personnel
to facilitate the process[26].
Monitoring inspections is usually undertaken by teachers, local or regional or
national inspectors or, most commonly, by a combination of these groups. Where
monitoring occurs, its rationale is generally quality assurance and
advice/guidance. It is considered important that MS develop the necessary
conditions to ensure physical education classes' quality and
curriculum compliance.
2.10 Extra-curricular activities and activities outside physical education curriculum
In most MS, extra-curricular activities, focusing on
participation in sport competitions, physical activities, games and events
complement the physical education curriculum. Offering a broad variety of
extra-curricular activities is useful to increase choice for children and
adolescents. In many MS there are good examples to illustrate how such
activities can be included into the daily school routine like active breaks or
activities on the way to school (such as active transport). Schools, alone or
accompanied by other relevant organisations, should be responsible for the
coordination of these activities.
In general, it is considered that more can be done.
The extra-curricular activities offer should be increased to encompass a
variety of activities ranging from the recreational context (e.g., healthy
breaks, physical activities and games) to the competitive context (e.g.,
different contexts such as recreational physical activities and games,
competitive sports). Schools and tertiary level institutions, such as universities,
could be encouraged to participate in inter-scholar and inter-universities
sport competitions, to organise sport/physical activity afternoons or holidays
sport camps. Students in secondary school and tertiary institutions should be
encouraged to take part in these after-school physical activity opportunities.
As explained previously, physical education and
extra-curricular activities play a pivotal role in increasing physical activity
participation and in promoting the adoption of healthy lifestyles among
children and adolescents. Extra-curricular activities usually pursue similar
goals as those specified in the physical education curriculum, but their main
purpose is to broaden and complement the opportunities for young people be more
physically active. They should be included in the school remit, and must take
into consideration the individual needs and interests of young people at school,
reflecting cultural, geographical, financial, and several other conditions
involving schools.
Sport organisations also play a vital role to address
these challenges, as partners to complement the activities of schools,
reinforcing the relevance of cooperation and complementarity as strategic
values. The beneficial relationship between these partners should be promoted
and publicly highlighted to strengthen valuable interactions. Sustainable
collaboration programmes should be created, both in curricular and
extra-curricular contexts, which may increase participation in sport and
physical activity. There is a wide variety of valuable models and successful
programmes across Europe that address how this cooperation can be organised,
which could be considered as best practices.
3.1 Sharing infrastructures and facilities
The availability and quality of physical education
infrastructure and facilities, and of equipment in schools, impact on the
nature, scope and quality of physical education programmes. Schools should have
access to adequate physical education infrastructures, facilities and equipment
that meet the standards of safety and hygiene, and that are maintained
accordingly. It is obvious that the planning of physical education classes
should take into account the available infrastructures and local environments.
Schools and local sport organisations need
appropriate sport facilities to develop their activities in safe and healthy
environments. There is a common interest to share facilities and, therefore,
optimize the use of existing infrastructure to prevent building parallel
facilities or leave existing ones underused. Such partnerships would be
beneficial for regular physical education classes, but would also provide for
new or expanded opportunities for after-school physical activity programmes. Institutional
collaboration frameworks are needed to ensure that school and sport
infrastructures are correctly planned and efficiently managed.
After-school physical activity can be considerably promoted by making sport facilities of schools available after school hours. When schools have on-site sport facilities, they should be encouraged to engage in partnerships with groups from the local community and from the sport movement, to facilitate the access and use of these facilities after school hours.
3.2 Label for schools promoting physical activity and sport
At European level, some documents or meetings have
discussed the idea of introducing an EU label for sport-minded schools as a
means to reinforce the synergistic cooperation between the education and sport
sectors.
Luxembourg, during its EU Presidency in 2004,
proposed to launch an EU-wide 'sports-minded schools' label that could be
awarded to schools respecting key criteria, such as the school management,
sports facilities and equipment, compulsory physical education,
extra-curricular school activities and institutional links with sports clubs[27].
In the 2007 White Paper on Sport, the Commission proposed “to introduce the
award of a European label to schools actively involved in supporting and
promoting physical activities in a school environment […] with a view to raise
public awareness of the needs and specificities of the sector, […] make schools
more attractive and improve attendance, […] and support health promotion and
awareness-raising campaigns through sport”[28].
3.3
Talent development
Special attention should be given to young highly
proficient athletes aspiring to a career in sport. MS have been developing
specific programmes and focused measures to particularly target these groups.
At national level, most MS have been providing supportive
frameworks to these exceptional young athletes attend special sports schools[29].
At local level, it is important that schools adjust
their curriculum, class schedules, and develop several other favourable
conditions to promote the integration of these students. Cooperation with sport
sector organizations is also crucial to ensure more opportunities in this
domain.
3.4 Contribution of certified sport coaches
Certified sport coaches can also contribute to the
success of the cooperative programmes developed between schools and sport
sector organisations. Their experience, skills and commitment can support the
development of new projects in schools both regarding physical education and in
extra-curricular activities, to increase physical activity offers.
In order for their impact on a school to be
sustainable in the long-term, these certified sport coaches should work
alongside and up-skill physical education class teachers, rather than replacing
them. MS authorities should, therefore, create supportive frameworks aimed at
promoting participation of certified coaches, in a sustainable way. However,
they should not replace compulsory physical education classes or compensate for
a possible lack of physical education teachers.
School is not the only institution responsible for
young people’s physical, mental, social and cultural development. Several other
stakeholders such as family, the wider educational community, the sport sector,
social organizations, and local authorities share the responsibility to
complete the educational task, working in close partnership with schools.
In fact, local authorities, in partnership with
schools, share the responsibility for physical, mental, social and cultural
development of young people. Active lifestyles are often discouraged by the
modern built and social environments. Governments can facilitate population
level behavioural change by creating supporting and enabling environments.
Local authorities have a responsibility to implement
and coordinate cross-sectoral programmes to enhance physical activity and sport
participation as well as to promote active transport in the community. They are
also in charge of urban and regional planning, security promotion and
environment protection, physical activity and sport infrastructure planning,
management and funding, and implementation of light physical activity
monitoring systems to assure quality information to adjust local policies and
strategies.
As highlighted by the UNESCO Worldwide Survey of
School Physical Education (2013), only about a quarter of countries have
formally arranged school-community partnership ‘pathways’.
4.1 Active transport
Sport infrastructures
4.3 Awareness campaigns
The private sector companies provide sports
facilities and services (e.g., fitness centres, private sport clubs or swimming
pools, , golf, and sport events such as running races) for which a membership
or an entrance fee is usually required.
The private sector can also play a role, alongside
schools, in the promotion of physical education and extra-curricular
activities. A close cooperation with schools and local authorities may increase
the number and variety of programmes and activities availability, in particular
in areas where physical activity opportunities are limited. In this sense,
private businesses should be encouraged to develop with schools programmes such
as sporting events, sport camps, regular sport programmes, novel extra-curricular
activities and public awareness-raising events. They should not replace
mandatory physical education classes.
The available offer could be accessible easily
through modern technologies or internet websites. Moreover schools and private
sector should seek to cooperate in order to make the available offer accessible
for free or at low cost for schools pupils.
Some MS already have a legacy in this area and some best practices implemented by private sector organisations (including non-profit cultural or social organisations), can be highlighted such as the development of sustainable, collaborative school programmes (supported by specific funds), and the promotion of continuous professional development for teachers in technical and pedagogical areas.
In its 2013 Recommendation on HEPA[30], the
Council recognised that the availability of more information and better data on
physical activity levels and HEPA promotion policies is an essential element to
underpin better evidence-based policy. Therefore, monitoring provisions form
part of the Recommendation. They were designed as minimal reporting
requirements on general aspects of HEPA promotion that can be addressed by all
MS.
MS were invited to appoint national Physical Activity
Focal Points to support that monitoring framework. The Commission was invited
to promote the establishment and functioning of this framework, in close
synergy and cooperation with the World Health Organization (WHO), thereby
avoiding duplication of data collection.
The Expert Group on HEPA considered that the evidence
base could be further improved, by collecting data related to physical
activity, fitness markers and sport participation especially for young people,
including at local level. These data should include information collected by
indirect methods, such as standardized questionnaires, combined with
objectively measured data resulting from equipment like accelerometers and
pedometers, and fitness test batteries.
It recommends considering the possibility to include
it in the monitoring framework when evaluating the Council Recommendation.
The present recommendations will be presented to the
Council Working Party on Sport under the Luxembourgish Presidency of the
Council of the EU.
The Commission will explore the possibility of
disseminating the results through relevant education-related channels at EU
level.
Member States representatives in the XG HEPA will
liaise with their national education ministries and other relevant ministries
to disseminate the information at national level.
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